The Concept of Minjok
The
concept of Minjok is stronger than the physical borders of Korea. It is the
most influential producer of social unity and attachment to homeland which can
be found in other nations with different names. Whether or not they live within
the borders, Koreans believe that they belong to the same ethnicity or Minjok
called ‘Hanminjok’, where the prefix
‘Han’ adds the meaning of ‘great’. The
subtle sense of ethnic superiority and pride is implicit in the concept of
Minjok, and Koreans have been colored with what Minjok has to provide although
they might not realize it. They take these for granted since they are born, and
such passive injections of ideas, practices, values, and meta narratives affect
their identity as Korean citizens. The concept of Minjok landed in Korea only
about a century ago. Unfortunately, its nature is contradicting with the trend
of globalization, and different views have emerged on how Minjok should be
interpreted in the 21st century. It is true that every judgmental statement on
the fundamentals of Korean identity must accompany considerable prudence, but
it is evident that the concept of Minjok has to adapt to the era of
globalization where ethnic barriers can hamper the development of future Korean
society.
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| Korean peninsula |
The
word Minjok itself has two different meanings. The first definition is race or
ethnicity in general. This definition is used when denoting the ethnicity of
foreigners, or translating nationalism into Korean. The second definition
refers to the Korean race in particular, which is the very definition that is
used in this essay. Koreans have been adding various adjectives to the word
Minjok in order to display the superiority of their race. They contend that the
Koreans used to be ‘Baekyeeminjok’(Minjok
of whiteness), suggesting the purity and innocence of themselves. Also Koreans
believe that they are a ‘Danilminjok’(Minjok
of single race), basically meaning that they are people who share the same blood,
language, and appearance.
The
Korean identity has a number of aspects to analyze, but in essence, it has deep
correlations with being a part of ‘Hanminjok’,
or ‘Hanjok’. The concept of Minjok,
rather a recent idea compared to what it comprehends, wraps up the history,
culture, and identity that the society expects to know from a viable Korean
citizen. The concept naturally becomes stationary in the minds of the Koreans without
a doubt. One of the main reasons why the concept of Minjok was easily absorbed
by Koreans was that it was built on top of collectivism, the basis of eastern
philosophy. The way people view the relationship between the society and its
members is quite different in the east from the west. The western perspectives
are more focused on the importance of individuals while the eastern perspectives are more concerned about the group as a whole. The obsession with
the word ‘Uri’ is a great example. ‘Uri’ is a word that means ‘us’, and it
is used by Koreans in daily dialogues without sensing the necessity to actually
clarify who ‘uri’ refers to. Even the
word ‘nara’, which means nation, often
combines with ‘uri’, and is used more
often than the actual name of the country. Therefore, two different concepts,
Minjok and the fellowship of Koreans mingled fairly well. Within the same Minjok,
Koreans are expected demonstrate certain behaviors of Confucianism, believe in
conventional ideas including meta narratives, and devote oneself to the future
of the Minjok since these are what makes them considered as part of it. Some of
those practices were used to maintain order in the ancient Korean society.
However, the emphasis on the meta narratives of ‘Dangun'(the creator of ancient Korea), ‘Hongikingan’ (the ideology of establishment of the very first state
in ancient Korea, which means spreading the benefit to the people) and the commonly used phrase ‘Banmannyun yeoksa’(history of 5000
years) are recent ideas. These allow Koreans to feel pride and self-esteem by
the fact that they are part of the Minjok who achieved such glory. The other
aspects of Minjok operate in an analogous way. Minjok offers something proud
from the history or culture, and gives the impression that the people are the
legacy of them, who are interconnected as one. Kids are taught these factors of
Minjok one by one since a very young age that the information is stored without
questioning. Also the education of the concept of Minjok can be attributed to
the parents and the grandparents who were the most affected by it when
globalization was yet to come. That is also why during the 2002 World Cup,
millions of people ran out to the streets to cheer for the Korean national
team, shouting ‘Uri neun hana’(we are
one).
The
comprehension of nationalism is a prerequisite for understanding the concept of
Minjok. Nationalism is the loyalty and devotion to a nation along with the
appreciation of its culture and interests above those of other nations.
Nationalism begets the attitude or set of actions of the people trying to express
care for their country and protect the integrity of national identity.
The emergence of nationalism can be dated back to the French Revolution that occurred in the year of 1789. Originally, the French borders enclosed various groups of people with different historical backgrounds and languages. The only connection among them was the fact that they were ruled under a common king. Rather than recognizing themselves as subjects that had innate duties to serve the king, they saw themselves as citizens who belonged to the land. Nationalism and democratic rights together gave birth to civic nationalism, thanks to the acquirement of equal rights regardless of previous classes. The French nationalism culminated in the war between other European states and the French army made up of French citizens, thus edifying the people that they are fighting for their proud land. Furthermore, Napoleon Bonaparte pursued territorial expansion for the sake of France, which was another incident that contributed to the growth of nationalism. On the other hand, Germany achieved ethnicnationalism, where numerous states that shared the same language united under the effort to emphasize the purity of their ethnicity and distinction from others by the powers-that-be. Ethnicity was the tool that wore off social inequality and discontent. Unfortunately, Nazism was one of the branches of ethnic nationalism in Germany, and the example shows how German nationalism once met extreme irrationality and authoritarianism.
When the breeze of nationalism settled in the Korean peninsula, it was interpreted as the necessity to establish reason for ethnic superiority and purity which could distinguish them from other race. As a result, the concept of Minjok, the special ethnic unity of Koreans was created. Unfortunately, the epidemic of such ideology that would bring the biggest change in the Korean history was imported from Japan, which was highly influential to Korea over a few decades ranging from the late 19th century to early 20th century.
Since
Japan tempted to colonize Korea in 1870s, western technology, goods, and ideas came
with the Japanese encroachment. Even the renowned scholars and students who
longed for quality education went abroad to study in Japan. The first notable
movement of nationalism in Korea is the ‘Donghak
movement’. Donghak was a religion which opposed to the ideas being imported
from the west, called ‘Yanghak’ or ‘Seohak’ at the time. It created by Chae
Jaewoo, and the religion gathered substantial number of followers. The Donghak movement later developed into an immense activity of civilians who tried to
fight against the political invasion of foreign powers. Donghak saw the value
in the conventional ideas of Korea and wished the country to stand independent
in such a hectic situation. During the first decade of 1900s when the indirect
control over Korea reached the peak just before the actual annexation, the
Japanese concept of minjoku landed in
the peninsula which later evolved into the concept of Minjok. The idea was
further developed by the intellects of Korea and this would push through the
efforts of independence activists to achieve liberty and right to national sovereignty
against Japanese colonialism to a certain extent. Independence movement that
based its ideology on the concept of Minjok was merely one of the numerous campaigns
that strived for national independence, but the concept itself assimilated with
the hearts of Koreans. The fact that every Korean belonged to the same Minjok
was appreciated especially when the pursuit of independence became desperate
due to harsh oppression of the Japanese. The notable scholars and activists of
nationalism during the period were Shin Chaeho, Park Eunshik, Lee Gwangsoo, and
Cho Manshik.
After the independence of Korea in 1945, North Korea and South Korea diverged to two different sovereign states. North Korea established a socialistic state while South Korea established a capitalistic one. However, the two Koreas had two things in common. First of all, although both nations claimed to be democratic nations, technically they were dictated each by Kim Ilsung and Lee Seungmahn. Secondly, they both made use of the concept of Minjok that was passed down since the beginning of the 20th century to unify their citizens and cover the government’s intentions. In Democratic People’s Republic of Korea(North Korea), the concept of Minjok became a tool that would support the ‘Juche’ ideology which is a more aggressive and tangible form of Minjok. ‘Juche’ ideology is an anthropocentric set of ideas which states that not an individual but the public have the ultimate power, and the public needs firm leadership that would lead the communistic movement which was Kim Ilsung in the beginning. Inferring from the ‘Juche’ ideology, the value of men can only be acknowledged when they function as components of a group. Therefore, North Korea needed social glue that would create a corporate nation. In addition, so as to achieve self-sufficiency in terms of economy and self-defense in terms of national defense, patriotism and closure that nationalism, or in this case, the concept of Minjok provides were indispensable.
Since
the 1960s when president Park Junghee dictated Korea, the concept of Minjok was
also a major propaganda of the government. Although its original purpose wasn’t
so, the concept of Minjok a few decades ago worked both as an impetus for
economic growth and maintenance of dictatorship. The justification for sending
the construction workers to the Middle East and the nurses to Germany was that
they were contributing to the future of the nation and the Hanminjok. Major issues during the Park Junghee administration, such
as sending troops to fight in the Vietnam War and receiving compensation money
to balance the costs of Japanese colonization were justified in a similar
context despite the disagreements of the citizens. Moreover, the initial
configuration of Korean economy was highly dependent on agriculture, and the
development of industry was not so discernible. Under multiple ‘5 year economic
development plan’, South Korea was able to grow via industries of high value,
but the starting position was not so prospective at the time. In order to
accelerate economic growth and cut off the infusion of ideas which could hamper
the dictatorship, the nation had to maximize export as well as become
self-sufficient in terms of consumption. The implication of racial superiority
and the greatness of the land that the concept of Minjok holds gave a strong
impression to Koreans that they had all they needed within the country. This is
why people easily said that Korea has the best delicacies come from different
cities in the country, four distinct seasons, and the best respect to elders. It
also explains how the government started to fund the reproduction of old
heritages and construction of monuments such as such as the ‘Ahndong Hahwemaeul’(area that reproduced
the traditional Korean village), and a pair of bronze statues of King Saejong(the
king who created the Korean characters) and Lee Soonshin(famous general who
fought boldly against the Japanese during their invasion in 1592) in ‘Gwanghwamoon’(a high street of Seoul) that
would even appreciate Minjok. Deducing whether the past actions were right or
wrong might require a different analysis, but it can be said that the fact that
Koreans were together as one Minjok dissipated the concern about confinement of
citizen’s activities and their sacrifice.
World history proves that Korea was not the only place where nationalism changed the flow of history of a particular nation. Sometimes injustice and even cruelty was justified in the name of nationalism, and some degenerated into extreme forms of nationalism which were marked as infamous incidents in history. China, Korea, and Japan in the late 19th century faced the epidemic of nationalism from the western powers. Each nation came up with the slogan of ‘Joongchaeseoyong’, ‘Dongdoseogeeron’, and ‘Hwahonyangjae’ respectively, all meaning ‘western technology, eastern spirit’. These movements commenced the start of nationalism in these countries where people had to unite in order to deal with the confrontation of exotic influence. Many countries including South Korea experienced abused nationalism, and the most well-known example is Nazism. The dictatorship which claimed the superiority of Germanic ethnicity resulted in a massacre of the Jews. Japan, on the other hand claimed the superiority of their race to those of other Asian states. Japan believed it was the responsibility of their Minjok to civilize the ‘uncivilized’ Asia, and create a Pan-Asian empire called ‘Daeilbonjaegook’(the great empire of Japan). Currently the conservative party of Japan which composes the administration is encouraging the revival of the concept of Minjok. This led to the concern of manipulated content of history textbooks, reconsideration on the law which limits the activity Japanese military to self-defense, and tough foreign policies. In China, the concept of Minjok was used to construct a socialistic nation. The Chinese government took advantage of military intervention and compelled minority groups acknowledge themselves as people of the same Minjok of the rest. They also destroyed idols of villages or cities that might disturb the loyalty of the Chinese citizens to the government. North Korea, needless to say, abused the concept of Minjok to advocate the ‘Juche’ ideology, and dictators who ruled South Korea used Minjok to cover up and justify the dark side of the society. Minjok was the key to the maintenance of dictatorship of both North and South Korea. Both states claimed that the other Korea did not exist as a legitimate government, and the original inheritance of Minjok belonged to themselves. Fortunately, North Korea and South Korea now approves each other as a legitimate government and the fact that both Koreas are descendants of the same Minjok is the focal point on the possibility of reunification. During the French revolution, nationalism was a method of the Bourgeois to elicit participation from the lower class. As a matter of fact, most of the rights achieved through went to the Bourgeoisie, and it was not until the Revolution of February in 1848 when men of the bottom class procured the right to vote. In a nutshell, the concept of Minjok was present in the history of a number of countries, and the idea itself was meaningful in the beginning. However, due to the outstanding effects of uniting the people and justifying the sacrifice of the minorities for the sake of the general well-being of the Minjok, it was often used to encroach upon basic human rights. The concept of Minjok in Korea was the major momentum of independence movement in the beginning, but its essence was fixed to fit the purposes of the administrations during the second half of the 20th century. Some people argue that South Korea’s establishment of a strong economy in a timely manner cannot justify the innocent sacrifices. Of course, oppressing the citizens and compelling them to sacrifice for the government’s private benefit is wrong, but perhaps it was inevitable in order to raise the living standards of Korea in the long term.
South
Korea of 2013 is very different from South Korea 3 score years ago when the
country was scratching to floor due to the devastation brought about by the
Korean War. Today the country has lined itself at 13th in terms of
economy, 7th in national military, 11th in education
index, 8th in international trade, 11th in national
power, 12th in diplomacy, and 4th in technology. South Korea’s
reliance on external trade is roughly 70 percent, and they deal with the threat
of North Korea through international relations. In the future, the
international society anticipates that the interests of different nations will
become more intertwined and people function as not only the citizens of their
nation but also as global citizens. The change in economy or government policy
of one nation greatly influences other nations, and there are global concerns
that require global participation. Furthermore, the real power and authority of
the 21st century comes from diplomatic positions that a nation
preoccupies, rather than physical power that comes from the military. On the
other hand, the concept of Minjok suggests a totally opposite nature from what
people expect from South Korea in the future. Minjok could be a negative factor
to the identity of South Korea if it continues to pursue its original meaning
and usage. However, if the concept of Minjok is adjusted in accordance with the
development of South Korea, Korea would have an easier time finding national
identity within the mixture of diverse cultures and promote the value of foreign
people’s understanding of Koreans. The answer to the question of how to
compromise these two different factors of globalization and Minjok can be found
at the fact the globalization has something that Minjok cannot offer, and vice
versa.
To
begin with, the standard of defining the Korean Minjok should shift from racial
commonalities to cultural and ideological commonalities. Globalization in a way
stimulates the concept of Minjok because it introduces exotic and unfamiliar
matters to the people who unified under shared characteristics. People
recognize themselves as separate entities that are different from what is imported
from the outside, and this deepens the identity of that Minjok by allowing them
to construct additional borders in between. Therefore, if racial standards of
Minjok continue to inspire the sense of difference upon foreigners, it will be
fatal to the future of Korea when the global trend is to mingle with, and
accept them into the borders. Racial discrimination which is another potential
of racial standards of Minjok can be detrimental as well once Koreans place
themselves distant from foreigners and form cliques of their own in other countries. In fact, these issues are already at hand. Their ability to place the nation in the center of the web of global interaction where race is not the hindering the exchange of ideas, cultures, and accomplishments of citizens will determine the future competence of South Korea. Furthermore, the inspiration of the concept of Minjok should stem from things that deserve the value from an objective perspective. The propaganda that burgeoned during the Park Junghee administration is now merely an illusion, while the unbelievable rate of growth in the past few decades, and the scientific excellence of ‘Hangul’(Korean character) are acknowledged by the international community. Therefore, the old fashioned list should be discarded, and the Korean Minjok should have pride and dignity from these kinds of elements. Lastly, the sense of cultural superiority, along with ethnic superiority must fade away from the concept of Minjok. Koreans must keep in mind that there are no such criteria which classify different culture into levels of development. Every nation has their own points of distinction and it is the responsibility of future Koreans to observe each culture with equal values.
In conclusion, although the concept of Minjok has been used for various purposes, it is a crucial ideology for Koreans in the 21st century. Ever since Korea promoted segyehwa through a top-down approach, Minjok became what identifies Korea in a mishmash of cultures. The adequate rectification and implementation of the concept of Minjok will lead Korea to a better future. Reunification will be back on the table, value of Korean culture will be appreciated by foreigners, and Korea’s future generations will strive to advance the land to a better place. The concept of Minjok suggested by the dictators of Korea was quite disappointing in the perspectives of the 21st century. Koreans should redefine the concept of Minjok, or they would repeat what happened in the history of Chosun, where the reluctance in adaptation led to the demise of the country.
Bibliography
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Bibliography
http://iis-db.stanford.edu/pubs/20125/Shin.pdf
http://www.ucalgary.ca/ev/designresearch/projects/Evds723/seoul.pdf
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http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nationalism/
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/219315/French-Revolution
http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Ethnic_nationalism.html
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http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-03-29/opinions/38123023_1_paradigm-shift-new-ministry-bell-labs
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